Let’s go back to the big question in our perek: Saul’s suicide.
We’ve spoken before about how I want to look at halacha and תנ״ך. My goal is not to determine הלכה למעשה; it is to understand the behavior of the characters in the text. It is clear that they have ethical standards and motivations; I assume that this is their understanding of רצון ה׳, and our best understanding of that is our understanding of רצון ה׳. Thus looking at later פוסקים gives us insight into the mindset of the Biblical personalities.
This goes the other direction as well. If a Biblical character is felt to be acting in accordance with רצון ה׳, that gives us information that helps determine the הלכה. This is why I think חז״ל tend to turn them into black-and-white personalities, either complete צדיקים or complete רשעים. The intent is not to water down their essential, imperfect, humanity; rather it is to help us determine whether they are worthy of being emulated or not. With that in mind, I want to look at all the instances of suicide in תנ״ך (I think this is a complete list; I am not including things like Samson’s death, since his goal was not to kill himself).
First is אבימלך, son of Gideon. He would rather die than have the ignominy of being killed by a woman. But he is clearly a רשע, so we don’t learn anything from him.
Then we have שאול, and we will have to see how חז״ל view his behavior. Then there is אחיתפל, a more ambiguous character. He is one of David’s close advisors, but joins Avshalom in his rebellion. When that rebellion fails, אחיתפל takes his own life. While he was initially a positive role model (פרקי אבות ו:ג uses him as the model for הלומד מחברו פרק אחד) he is gone to the “dark side” here.
Then we have זמרי, who was king of Israel for a week after assasinating Elah. He’s clearly not meant to be a role model.
And then there are חנניה מישאל ועזריה, who sacrificed themselves rather than bow to an idol. They are צדיקים, the archtypes of dying על קדוש ה׳.
Going back, what’s wrong with suicide? The major source for the laws of suicide is “מסכת ”שמחות:
Where does this prohibition come from? One approach is that it is murder, as as such forbidden:
But this is not the approach that the halacha takes.
Rather, there is a separate prohibition of violating the צלם אלקים of humanity:
The gemara cites this in discussing whether one is permitted to injure oneself:
And the בראשית רבה brings in our תנ״ך cases:
חנניה מישאל ועזריה we understand from the law of יהרג ועל יעבור. How do we know that Saul’s death should not be treated as a halachic suicide? There is a later incident in ספר שמואל when בני ישראל are punished for not mourning Saul:
What makes Saul different? Here’s how the שולחן ערוך puts it:
So what is אנוס כשאול המלך?
One possibility is the pain he was in, and the fear of being further tortured. But the halacha does not seem to countenance that:
However, תוספות (who lived through the Crusades when these questions were unfortunately relevant) is more lenient in the face of torture. The Gemara cites a story about the Roman conquest:
And תוספות explains that it was the fear of torture that motivated them:
And more explicitly:
But other poskim do not agree that pain itself permits suicide:
We will come back to the issue of לא יתחלל שם שמים.
In addition to the halachic question, the prospect of extreme pain does not fit our text; Saul says פן יבואו הערלים האלה ודקרני והתעללו בי. The reason is התעללו בי, they will mock me. Saul is not an over-emotional teenager, to threaten suicide over his embarrassment. What is going on?
The בית יוסף brings two opinions about suicide:
The idea that שאול בן קיש שלא ברצון חכמים עשה is hard to reconcile with the sources we have cited.
And the Maharshal (who holds like the יש אוסרים) avoids this problem while explaining the distinction between מסור עצמו למיתה and הרוג את עצמו:
He offers two explanations of Saul’s behavior. One is the issue of חלול ה׳. Note that this is stronger than “the big 3”, where one is only allowed to be killed, not kill oneself. חלול ה׳ is different:
Rav Hutner explains why חלול ה׳ is so much stronger than עבודה זרה etc.:
The Maharshal’s other reason is based on the halachic concept of a רודף: one is allowed to kill someone attempting murder. Note that both of his explanations fit with the text. If the Philistines mock him, then there will be a terrible חלול ה׳, that such a thing could happen to G-d’s annointed. And if he is publicly mocked, בני ישראל are likely to try to save him, resulting in even more deaths.
Rabbi Yaakov Emden has a radical interpretation of Saul’s behavior. He discusses the question of whether abortion is permitted in a case of גלוי עריות, where the woman is liable for capital punishment. He allows it, since if the Sanhedrin were operational, we would have put her to death even though she is pregnant. He extends this concept of being liable to the death penalty even if there is no way to apply it:
While this does not fit with the text of התעללו בי, it fits with our general understanding of Saul’s mindset. As the Midrash says:
So we have four approaches to Saul’s suicide:
He was in extremis, in pain and anticipating worse
He was afraid of creating a desecration of G-d’s name
He was afraid of further Israelite deaths if he was captured
He felt his guilt for the murder of Nob made his death mandatory
We have no way of knowing which is true. In fact, they all may be. And it is not clear that what he did was in fact halachically acceptable (the opinion in the בית יוסף that שלא ברצון חכמים עשה). But בני ישראל still should have mourned him, not treated him as a true suicide. The final halacha makes that clear: